Molecular Genetics
Transcription - process by which DNA is copied into mRNA
Translation - process by which RNA makes protein
Amino acid - the monomer unit of a polypeptide chain that is composed of a carboxylic acid, an amino group, and a side group that differentiates it from other amino acids
Codon - sequence of three bases in DNA or complementary mRNA that serves as a code for a particular amino acid
Anticodon - group of three complementary bases on tRNA that recognizes and pairs with a codon on the mRNA
Gene - a sequence of nucleotides in DNA that perform a specific function such as coding for a particular protein
RNA polymerase - enzyme that transcribes DNA into complementary mRNA
Upstream - region of DNA adjacent to the start of a gene
Promoter - sequence of DNA that binds RNA polymerase upstream of a gene
Template strand - the strand of DNA that the RNA polymerase uses as a guide to build complementary mRNA
Primary transcript - mRNA that has to be modified before exiting the nucleus in eukaryotic cells
5’ cap - 7-methyl guanosine added to the start of a primary transcript to protect it from digestion in the cytoplasm and to bind it to the ribosome as part of the initiation of translation
Poly-A tail - a string of 200 to 300 adenine base pairs at the end of an mRNA transcript
Exon - segments of DNA that code for a part of a specific protein
Intron - noncoding region of a gene
Spliceosome - particles made of RNA and protein that cut introns from mRNA primary transcript and joins together the remaining coding exon regions
mRNA transcript - mRNA that has been modified for exit out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm
Reading frame - one of three possible phases in which to read the bases of a gene in groups of three
Eukaryote: organism whose cells contain complex, membrane-bound structures
Prokaryote: organism whose cells lack a membrane-bound nucleus
Operon: functioning unit of genomic DNA containing a cluster of genes that are expressed and regulated in tandem
Repressor: DNA-binding protein that regulates gene expression by blocking RNA polymerase from transcribing a gene
Histone: core structural component of a nucleosome, about which DNA is wound
Euchromatin: loosely packed, transcriptionally active DNA
Heterochromatin: tightly packed, transcriptionally inactive DNA
Methylation: introduction of a methyl functional group into a chemical compound
Acetylation: introduction of an acetyl functional group into a chemical compound
Telomere: region of repetitive nucleotide sequence at each end of a chromatid
Translation - process by which RNA makes protein
Amino acid - the monomer unit of a polypeptide chain that is composed of a carboxylic acid, an amino group, and a side group that differentiates it from other amino acids
Codon - sequence of three bases in DNA or complementary mRNA that serves as a code for a particular amino acid
Anticodon - group of three complementary bases on tRNA that recognizes and pairs with a codon on the mRNA
Gene - a sequence of nucleotides in DNA that perform a specific function such as coding for a particular protein
RNA polymerase - enzyme that transcribes DNA into complementary mRNA
Upstream - region of DNA adjacent to the start of a gene
Promoter - sequence of DNA that binds RNA polymerase upstream of a gene
Template strand - the strand of DNA that the RNA polymerase uses as a guide to build complementary mRNA
Primary transcript - mRNA that has to be modified before exiting the nucleus in eukaryotic cells
5’ cap - 7-methyl guanosine added to the start of a primary transcript to protect it from digestion in the cytoplasm and to bind it to the ribosome as part of the initiation of translation
Poly-A tail - a string of 200 to 300 adenine base pairs at the end of an mRNA transcript
Exon - segments of DNA that code for a part of a specific protein
Intron - noncoding region of a gene
Spliceosome - particles made of RNA and protein that cut introns from mRNA primary transcript and joins together the remaining coding exon regions
mRNA transcript - mRNA that has been modified for exit out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm
Reading frame - one of three possible phases in which to read the bases of a gene in groups of three
Eukaryote: organism whose cells contain complex, membrane-bound structures
Prokaryote: organism whose cells lack a membrane-bound nucleus
Operon: functioning unit of genomic DNA containing a cluster of genes that are expressed and regulated in tandem
Repressor: DNA-binding protein that regulates gene expression by blocking RNA polymerase from transcribing a gene
Histone: core structural component of a nucleosome, about which DNA is wound
Euchromatin: loosely packed, transcriptionally active DNA
Heterochromatin: tightly packed, transcriptionally inactive DNA
Methylation: introduction of a methyl functional group into a chemical compound
Acetylation: introduction of an acetyl functional group into a chemical compound
Telomere: region of repetitive nucleotide sequence at each end of a chromatid
Biochemistry
Activation energy - energy that must be overcome for a chemical reaction to occur
Amino acid- monomer unit of proteins. There are 20 amino acids in the human body, that make up all the proteins in the body.
Amino group- A molecule bonded to a nitrogen atom.
Carbohydrates- organic compound consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They have a variety of functions including, structure, energy storage, enzyme formation and immune function.
Carbonyl groups- A carbon double bonded to an oxygen molecule. Can be one the first carbon (aldehyde) or within the molecule (ketone)
Carboxyl groups- A carbon molecule attached to both a hydroxyl group and a double bonded oxygen
Condensation (Dehydration) Reaction - two molecules combine to form a larger molecule with the loss of a water
Dehydration Reaction- reaction where water is removed.
Disaccharide- two monosaccharaides bonded together
Enzyme - biological molecules that accelerate the rate and specificity of chemical reactions
Functional group- component of a molecule that is responsible for a given action.
Hydrolysis - chemical process in which water is added to a substance
Hydroxyl Group- A molecule with an oxygen and hydrogen attached
Lipids- group of biochemical compounds that are responsible for cell signaling, energy storage and the structural component of a cell
Macromolecules- large organic biochemical compounds
Methyl Group- One carbon molecule attached to three hydrogen molecules and another molecule.
Monomers- singular unit of macromolecules.
Monosaccharide- the monomer of carbohydrates Ex. Glucose.
Neutralization reaction - chemical reaction with in which an acid and base react to form a salt; water is frequently produced
Nucleic acids- built of nucleotides, responsible for the formation of genetic material.
Nucleotide- base for nucleic acids. There are five in the human body (A,T, C, G and U)
Functional group- component of a molecule that is responsible for a given action.
Oxidation - Reduction Reactions (Re-dox) - chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation state changed
Peptide bond- the covalent bond formed between an amino group of one molecule and the carboxyl group of another amino group
Peptide bond- he covalent bond formed between an amino group of one molecule and the carboxyl group of another amino group
Polysaccharide- three or more monosaccharaides bonded together
Protein- biochemical compound containing a string of amino acids connected using peptide bond
Amino acid- monomer unit of proteins. There are 20 amino acids in the human body, that make up all the proteins in the body.
Amino group- A molecule bonded to a nitrogen atom.
Carbohydrates- organic compound consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They have a variety of functions including, structure, energy storage, enzyme formation and immune function.
Carbonyl groups- A carbon double bonded to an oxygen molecule. Can be one the first carbon (aldehyde) or within the molecule (ketone)
Carboxyl groups- A carbon molecule attached to both a hydroxyl group and a double bonded oxygen
Condensation (Dehydration) Reaction - two molecules combine to form a larger molecule with the loss of a water
Dehydration Reaction- reaction where water is removed.
Disaccharide- two monosaccharaides bonded together
Enzyme - biological molecules that accelerate the rate and specificity of chemical reactions
Functional group- component of a molecule that is responsible for a given action.
Hydrolysis - chemical process in which water is added to a substance
Hydroxyl Group- A molecule with an oxygen and hydrogen attached
Lipids- group of biochemical compounds that are responsible for cell signaling, energy storage and the structural component of a cell
Macromolecules- large organic biochemical compounds
Methyl Group- One carbon molecule attached to three hydrogen molecules and another molecule.
Monomers- singular unit of macromolecules.
Monosaccharide- the monomer of carbohydrates Ex. Glucose.
Neutralization reaction - chemical reaction with in which an acid and base react to form a salt; water is frequently produced
Nucleic acids- built of nucleotides, responsible for the formation of genetic material.
Nucleotide- base for nucleic acids. There are five in the human body (A,T, C, G and U)
Functional group- component of a molecule that is responsible for a given action.
Oxidation - Reduction Reactions (Re-dox) - chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation state changed
Peptide bond- the covalent bond formed between an amino group of one molecule and the carboxyl group of another amino group
Peptide bond- he covalent bond formed between an amino group of one molecule and the carboxyl group of another amino group
Polysaccharide- three or more monosaccharaides bonded together
Protein- biochemical compound containing a string of amino acids connected using peptide bond
Population Dynamics
Carrying capacity: maximum number of individuals a ecosystem can hold based on the amount of resources.
Population growth: the change in a population over time, and can be quantified as the change in the number of individuals of any species in a population using "per unit time" for measurement
Population cycle: a phenomenon where populations rise and fall over a predictable period of time
Fecundity: the potential reproductive capacity of an individual or population
Mortality: the rate at which individuals die in a population
Mutualism: species interaction that benefits both species
Parasistism: species interaction that benefits only one of the species but leaves the other species in a worse condition.
Commensalism: species interaction that benefits one species but does not harm the none benefiting species
Population growth: the change in a population over time, and can be quantified as the change in the number of individuals of any species in a population using "per unit time" for measurement
Population cycle: a phenomenon where populations rise and fall over a predictable period of time
Fecundity: the potential reproductive capacity of an individual or population
Mortality: the rate at which individuals die in a population
Mutualism: species interaction that benefits both species
Parasistism: species interaction that benefits only one of the species but leaves the other species in a worse condition.
Commensalism: species interaction that benefits one species but does not harm the none benefiting species
Metabolic Process
(Ray)
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): a nucleoside triphosphate used in cells as a coenzyme. ATP transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism.
Aerobic respiration: form of respiration that requires oxygen in order to generate ATP.
Anaerobic respiration: form of respiration using electron acceptors other than oxygen
Cellular respiration: metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.
Glucose: simple monosaccharide sugar that is an important carbohydrate that cells use as a primary source of energy
Mitochondria: membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells, described as the “cellular power points” because they generate most of the cell’s supply of ATP.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): a nucleoside triphosphate used in cells as a coenzyme. ATP transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism.
Aerobic respiration: form of respiration that requires oxygen in order to generate ATP.
Anaerobic respiration: form of respiration using electron acceptors other than oxygen
Cellular respiration: metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.
Glucose: simple monosaccharide sugar that is an important carbohydrate that cells use as a primary source of energy
Mitochondria: membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells, described as the “cellular power points” because they generate most of the cell’s supply of ATP.
Homeostasis
Autonomic Nervous System - The part of the Nervous System that deals with processes in the body that we have no control over (ie respiriation, digestion, circulation)
Axon - The part of the nerve cell that sends information away from the cell body
Central Nervous System - composed of the brain and spinal cord
Cornea - The clear or transparent part of the eye that covers the iris muscle and the pupil opening
Corpus Luteum - The dominant follicle which is a major anatomical part of the female reproductive system turns into the corpus luteum during the ovulatory phase after the egg is released from the ovary.
Dendrite - The part of the cell that receives information
Dominant Follicle - A anatomical part of the body that develops in one of the ovaries usually around one week prior to ovulation and it assists the ovary in releasing the egg.
Endocrine Gland System - Gland system that secrets hormones directly into the bloodstream to be transferred to their target
Endometrium - This is the inner membrane of the female's uterus. It sheds and thins when levels of progesterone and estrogen decrease in the menstrual cycle if conception does not occur.
Estrogen - One of the primary female sex hormones, plays a major role in the menstrual cycle. The hypothalamus senses this hormone at the start of the menstrual cycle in order to facilitate the production of other hormones.
Exocrine Gland System - Gland system that secrets hormones outside of the body (ie sweat glands)
Gland
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) - This hormone is produced by the pituitary gland during the menstrual cycle. A female's body produces the highest amount of FSH right before the egg is released and ovulation occurs. This hormone also causes the dominant follicle to mature.
Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) - This hormone is produced by the hypothalamus. It is interesting to note however, at the pituitary gland, pulses of GnRH can stimulate the production of FSH and LH as well. For instance, low-frequency GnRH pulses lead to the release of FSH whereas high-frequency GnRH pulses lead to the release of LH.
Homeostasis - the process your body undertakes to maintain a constant state of normal existence
Hypothalamus - This is an anatomical function that lies in the brain, it is right below the thalamus (therefore, "hypo"-thalamus) and right above the brain stem. It plays an extremely important role in the endocrine system and nervous system whereby it is responsible for sensing signals, creating hormones and regulating other hormone production. The hypothalamus is closely related to the pituitary gland will send signals to this gland to increase or decrease the production of certain hormones.
Lutenizing Hormone (LH) - SImilar to Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH), LH is also produced by the pituitary gland. As well, a female's body contains the highest amount of LH just immediately prior to ovulation and the egg is released. In males, LH is responsible for regulating the amount of testosterone produced and therefore the production of sperm.
Negative Feedback Loop - The body reacts to a stimulus by stopping the process that caused that stimulus.
Parasympathetic Nervous System - the nervous system that prepares your body for stress
Peripheral Nervous System - composed of the nerve cells through out your body
Positive Feedback Loop - The body reacts to a stimulus by increasing the process that caused the stimulus.
Progesterone - In conjunction with estrogen, progesterone is also a steroid hormone that is sensed by the hypothalamus at the start of the menstrual cycle.
Progestin - This is a man-made hormone that is commonly found in birth control pills. It has properties that are similar to the natural hormones found in the human body called progesterone. There are many variations of progestin which is why there are many different types of birth control pills, also known as oral contraceptives. This hormone assists in the processes that suppresses ovulation and tricks the ovary into thinking it has released an egg.
Protein Hormone - A hormone that does not enter the cell membrane but creates a complex (ie cAMP) to signal the nucleus and produce a result
Retina - The part of the eye that collects light and eventually generates the image
Rods/cones - Part of the Retina; responsible for detecting black and white (rods) and coloured light (cones)
Steroid Hormone - A hormone that enters the cell membrane and interacts with the nucleus to produce a result
Sympathetic Nervous System - The nervous system that relieves your body from stress
Thermoregulation - The ability for a body (organism) to maintain a certain temperature range, in varying external conditions.
Axon - The part of the nerve cell that sends information away from the cell body
Central Nervous System - composed of the brain and spinal cord
Cornea - The clear or transparent part of the eye that covers the iris muscle and the pupil opening
Corpus Luteum - The dominant follicle which is a major anatomical part of the female reproductive system turns into the corpus luteum during the ovulatory phase after the egg is released from the ovary.
Dendrite - The part of the cell that receives information
Dominant Follicle - A anatomical part of the body that develops in one of the ovaries usually around one week prior to ovulation and it assists the ovary in releasing the egg.
Endocrine Gland System - Gland system that secrets hormones directly into the bloodstream to be transferred to their target
Endometrium - This is the inner membrane of the female's uterus. It sheds and thins when levels of progesterone and estrogen decrease in the menstrual cycle if conception does not occur.
Estrogen - One of the primary female sex hormones, plays a major role in the menstrual cycle. The hypothalamus senses this hormone at the start of the menstrual cycle in order to facilitate the production of other hormones.
Exocrine Gland System - Gland system that secrets hormones outside of the body (ie sweat glands)
Gland
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) - This hormone is produced by the pituitary gland during the menstrual cycle. A female's body produces the highest amount of FSH right before the egg is released and ovulation occurs. This hormone also causes the dominant follicle to mature.
Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) - This hormone is produced by the hypothalamus. It is interesting to note however, at the pituitary gland, pulses of GnRH can stimulate the production of FSH and LH as well. For instance, low-frequency GnRH pulses lead to the release of FSH whereas high-frequency GnRH pulses lead to the release of LH.
Homeostasis - the process your body undertakes to maintain a constant state of normal existence
Hypothalamus - This is an anatomical function that lies in the brain, it is right below the thalamus (therefore, "hypo"-thalamus) and right above the brain stem. It plays an extremely important role in the endocrine system and nervous system whereby it is responsible for sensing signals, creating hormones and regulating other hormone production. The hypothalamus is closely related to the pituitary gland will send signals to this gland to increase or decrease the production of certain hormones.
Lutenizing Hormone (LH) - SImilar to Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH), LH is also produced by the pituitary gland. As well, a female's body contains the highest amount of LH just immediately prior to ovulation and the egg is released. In males, LH is responsible for regulating the amount of testosterone produced and therefore the production of sperm.
Negative Feedback Loop - The body reacts to a stimulus by stopping the process that caused that stimulus.
Parasympathetic Nervous System - the nervous system that prepares your body for stress
Peripheral Nervous System - composed of the nerve cells through out your body
Positive Feedback Loop - The body reacts to a stimulus by increasing the process that caused the stimulus.
Progesterone - In conjunction with estrogen, progesterone is also a steroid hormone that is sensed by the hypothalamus at the start of the menstrual cycle.
Progestin - This is a man-made hormone that is commonly found in birth control pills. It has properties that are similar to the natural hormones found in the human body called progesterone. There are many variations of progestin which is why there are many different types of birth control pills, also known as oral contraceptives. This hormone assists in the processes that suppresses ovulation and tricks the ovary into thinking it has released an egg.
Protein Hormone - A hormone that does not enter the cell membrane but creates a complex (ie cAMP) to signal the nucleus and produce a result
Retina - The part of the eye that collects light and eventually generates the image
Rods/cones - Part of the Retina; responsible for detecting black and white (rods) and coloured light (cones)
Steroid Hormone - A hormone that enters the cell membrane and interacts with the nucleus to produce a result
Sympathetic Nervous System - The nervous system that relieves your body from stress
Thermoregulation - The ability for a body (organism) to maintain a certain temperature range, in varying external conditions.